Meat is macho: Why masculinity concepts get in the way of green initiatives to cut meat and dairy consumption

University of Bath Press Release

4 September 2025

Meat is macho: why masculinity concepts get in the way of green initiatives to cut meat and dairy consumption

Study recommends ways forward to encourage men to change their diet

Video: Dr Annayah Prosser explains the issues identified in the study

A new study shows that traditional masculine norms are a significant barrier preventing men from reducing their meat and dairy consumption, and recommends how to better appeal to men to change their dietary ways to mitigate damage to the environment from animal agriculture.   

Researchers from the University of Bath, Bryant Research and the University of Zurich examined the relationship between eating meat and animal products. They looked into ways to reduce meat consumption and improve plant-based marketing in the study: “Macho meals? A mixed methods study on traditional masculine norms and animal product consumption in the UK” published in the Journal of Environmental Psychology.

“Animal agriculture is key culprit of environmental degradation, public health risks, and animal suffering. Reducing meat and animal product consumption is widely recognised as an effective way to mitigate these harms. However, men continue to consume more meat than women, are less likely to be vegetarian or vegan, and are more resistant to initiatives that promote reductions in meat consumption,” said Dr Annayah Prosser of the University of Bath School of Management.

The survey of over 1,000 men in the UK showed that those who more strongly embraced traditional masculine norms such as self-reliance and not sharing or showing emotions ate significantly more red meat and poultry. They also reported a deeper emotional attachment to meat and dairy, and were more likely to view meat-eating as masculine, as well as regarding vegetarianism as a cultural threat.

The researchers assessed whether traditional masculinity predicts how often men consume meat, their emotional attachment to it, and the perceived masculinity of meat. They then explored and factored in six aspects of traditional masculinity - avoidance of femininity, restrictive emotionality, aggression, achievement status, self-reliance, and attitudes toward sex.

“Beyond the well-known link between masculinity and meat, our study identified two masculine norms that may drive this connection: ‘avoidance of femininity’ and ‘achievement status’. Men endorsing these specific norms tended to eat more meat, were more attached to meat and dairy, viewed vegetarianism as a threat to British culture and found meat more masculine. To shift men’s diets, the challenge is to address these norms and find ways to work with – not against – men’s identities,” said lead author Elise Hankins of Bryant Research.

Follow-up remotely-moderated focus groups explored further how men speak about meat consumption, gender and diet within their peer groups. While the links between meat and masculinity were clear in the survey, men in the focus groups often spoke about meat consumption and gender in contradictory ways:

Dr Prosser explains: “Men in our focus groups were conflicted over the role masculinity played in their meat consumption. At first, many men wholly dismissed the role their gender had over their diet, but minutes later they would speak about the vast influences their social network and male peer group had on their menu choices. Researchers understand that eating is a fundamentally social activity, and our research shows that while men may not wish to recognise it overtly, masculinity has a major covert influence on dietary choices.”

Armed with the study outcomes, the researchers proposed the following strategies to make plant-based eating more appealing to men:

1. Prioritise taste – Since scepticism about flavour remains a major barrier amongst men, campaigns should offer taste tests, highlight flavour in advertising, and invest in making plant-based products more appealing.
2. Focus on health and nutrition – education on the health benefits of plant-based diets -especially around protein, fitness, and longevity - can help counter myths and align with self-oriented male motivations.
3. Use implicit messaging – instead of overtly marketing plant-based foods as “manly,” link them subtly to values like performance, strength, and adventure to avoid alienating men who reject gendered food narratives.
4. Balance clarity and appeal in labelling – continue using familiar “meaty” labels for plant-based alternatives to meet taste expectations, while educating consumers that these products are designed as recognisable replacements—not deceptive substitutes.
5. Leverage social influence – since partners, friends, and family shape men’s food choices, interventions could tap into these networks to encourage plant-based eating.
6. Address cost concerns – Policies to make plant-based products more affordable—through subsidies or price incentives—could help level the playing field with conventional meat and dairy.

“Macho meals? A mixed methods study on traditional masculine norms and animal product consumption in the UK” is published in the Journal of Environmental Psychology. The research team comprised Elise Hankins, Abby Couture, Charlotte Flores of Bryant Research; Nicholas Poh-Jie Tan of the University of Zurich; and Dr Annayah Prosser of the University of Bath. The study was funded by ProVeg International, an international food awareness organisation striving for a sustainable world.

ENDS/tr

Notes to editors

• For more information please contact the University of Bath Press office at press@bath.ac.uk

University of Bath

The University of Bath is one of the UK's leading universities, recognised for high-impact research, excellence in education, an outstanding student experience and strong graduate prospects.

• We are ranked in the top 10 in all of the UK’s major university guides.
• The University achieved a triple Gold award in the last Teaching Excellence Framework 2023, the highest awards possible, for both the overall assessment and for student outcomes and student experience. The Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF) is a national scheme run by the Office for Students (OfS).
• We are also ranked among the top 10% of universities globally, placing 132nd in the QS World University Rankings 2026.

Research from Bath is helping to change the world for the better. Across the University’s three Faculties and School of Management, our research is making an impact in society, leading to low-carbon living, positive digital futures, and improved health and wellbeing. Find out all about our Research with Impact: https://www.bath.ac.uk/campaigns/research-with-impact/