Fabricating skin-like devices from metals that can bend, stretch and heal

Metals have long been prized for their unmatched electrical conductivity. But their rigidity has historically kept them out of the race to build flexible, skin-like electronics. Now, a wave of research is reshaping this narrative—transforming metals into stretchable, breathable, and even self-healing components for the next generation of wearable technology.

A new review in International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing highlights the rapid progress in turning metallic materials into flexible electrodes (FEs) and, ultimately, soft epidermal electrodes (SEEs). Unlike the rigid metal pads traditionally used in medical monitoring, SEEs are engineered to mimic the softness and stretchability of skin itself. They conform like a second layer of tissue, remaining comfortable even during long wear and delivering stable, high-quality signals.

The journey from stiff metal to supple electrode has taken three major directions. Some researchers pattern ultrathin metallic films into intricate meshes, creating lightweight networks that retain conductivity while gaining flexibility and transparency. Another centers on metal nanowires, most notably silver, whose nanoscale dimensions allow them to form highly conductive yet stretchable networks capable of dissipating strain. A third pathway is driven by liquid metals, which combine fluidity with high conductivity and even the ability to self-heal when damaged.

Together, these approaches are redefining what metals can do, creating electrodes that are transparent, stretchable, and durable enough for daily use on the body.

A particularly exciting frontier is the development of ultrathin SEEs, or U-SEEs, which adhere to skin almost like a temporary tattoo. Fabricated through both in situ and transfer-based methods, these devices create intimate, conformal contact that allows them to sense bioelectric signals, stimulate nerves or muscles, and even harvest energy—all while remaining nearly imperceptible to the wearer. Their potential spans from personalized healthcare to advanced rehabilitation and human–machine integration

But the path forward is not without obstacles. Metal meshes can scatter light and lose strength when stretched. Nanowires, while powerful, are vulnerable to corrosion and heat. Metal meshes can suffer from optical haze and limited durability under strain; nanowires are vulnerable to corrosion and instability; and liquid metals present processing and safety hurdles. Just as critically, integrating these flexible components with rigid chips and power sources remains a bottleneck.

Researchers are also dealing with practical issues like ensuring breathability, skin-safe adhesion, and long-term reliability—all essential for everyday wear.

Even so, the progress is very promising. Researchers are now exploring composite designs that combine the best qualities of different metallic systems to balance flexibility, conductivity, and transparency. At the same time, scalable fabrication methods such as 3D printing, aerosol jet printing, and roll-to-roll processing are being refined to bring these technologies closer to mass production. Layered atop this foundation, artificial intelligence and multimodal sensing are expected to elevate these epidermal systems into intelligent platforms capable of predictive healthcare and next-generation human–machine interaction.

As corresponding author Prof. Jeong Ho Cho at Yonsei University explains, “We hope these advances will allow epidermal electronics to integrate effortlessly into daily life, supporting personalized healthcare, rehabilitation, and beyond.” The once-rigid world of metals is now bending to human needs, evolving into warm, skin-like companions that may soon become as natural to wear as clothing—ushering in a future where electronics are not just worn, but lived in.

International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing (IJEM, IF: 21.3) is dedicated to publishing the best advanced manufacturing research with extreme dimensions to address both the fundamental scientific challenges and significant engineering needs.

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