Global study reveals soaring freshwater demand in material production

An international research team has published a pioneering study in Nature Sustainability unveiling the hidden water footprint of materials such as steel, cement, paper, plastics, and rubber. The findings highlight alarming growth in freshwater consumption tied to industrial production, raising urgent sustainability concerns for water-stressed countries.

The Anthropocene and water scarcity

Scientists describe today's era as the Anthropocene, an age defined by humanity's massive impact on the planet. One of its hallmarks is the over-extraction of freshwater – known as blue water – from aquifers and rivers.

While agriculture remains the dominant consumer of freshwater globally, industrial water use has surged rapidly in recent decades, especially in water-stressed emerging economies.

Understanding the "virtual water" content of materials – that is, the freshwater embodied in their production – has therefore become essential for sustainable management of global water resources.

However, most scientific attention to date has focused on food, feed and fiber, leaving the water footprint of material production, such as steel, cement, paper, plastics, and rubber, under-examined at the global scale.

A new study, co-authored by Dr. Asaf Tzachor, Vice Dean of the School of Sustainability at Reichman University, reveals the hidden scale of this challenge and highlights the urgent need for action.

Key findings

The study, published in Nature Sustainability, assesses the "blue water footprint" (WFblue) – the freshwater drawn from rivers and aquifers – of 16 key metallic and non-metallic materials across 164 countries and regions between 1995 and 2021.

The findings are stark: the global water footprint of material production doubled over this period, rising from 25.1 billion cubic meters in 1995 to 50.7 billion cubic meters in 2021. This pushed the share of material production in global freshwater use from 2.8 percent to 4.7 percent. East and South Asia and Oceania saw the steepest rise, with water footprints surging by 267 percent.

According to Dr. Tzachor, the results carry profound implications for both industry and policymakers. "With growing population, urbanization and affluence, material production continues to expand worldwide, and the competition for freshwater will intensify. We urgently need to adopt a water-materials nexus approach, particularly in countries already suffering from severe water scarcity", he said.

Professor Heming Wang, from the State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Eco-Industry, Northeastern University, and a co-author of the study, emphasized the broader environmental and industrial context. "Our analysis shows that managing water efficiently is not only an environmental necessity but also an industrial imperative. In rapidly developing economies, improving water productivity in material manufacturing can deliver both ecological and economic benefits. Integrating water efficiency into industrial planning is now essential to ensure sustainable growth".

The research identifies steel as the most water-intensive material, accounting for nearly 40 percent of the global WFblue of material production in 2021, followed by paper at 18 percent and plastics at 9 percent. Aluminium and cement production grew rapidly as well, though their share of total freshwater use remains smaller.

Regional disparities are similarly stark: while OECD countries reduced their WFblue by 11 percent, East and South Asia and Oceania accounted for more than two-thirds of global use by 2021.

Looking ahead, the trajectory of material demand remains uncertain. Some forecasts anticipate sustained growth fueled by economic expansion, while others point to a plateau shaped by efficiency gains, circular economy practices, and decarbonization strategies.

Under the study's projections, by 2050 the water footprints of materials such as plastics, cement, steel, aluminium, and copper could grow by up to 179 percent compared to 2021, raising their share of global freshwater use to as much as 9 percent.

The authors urge governments and industries to act now. Targeted interventions in hotspots such as India, Kazakhstan, and Turkey could reduce water conflicts by improving efficiency in material production. Longer-term solutions include incentivizing water-saving technologies and redesigning industrial processes through subsidies, tax incentives, and financial support.

"This study highlights the hidden water costs of the materials on which modern economies depend", Dr. Tzachor concluded. "If we fail to integrate water considerations into global production strategies, we risk worsening both water crises and industrial vulnerabilities. The time to act is now".