image: Eating rate has sustained effects on energy intake from ultra-processed diets: A two week ad libitum dietary randomized controlled trial. This graphical abstract describes a randomized controlled trial (RCT) carried out by researchers from Wageningen University, the Netherlands, which has provided new evidence that texture-derived differences in meal eating rate influence energy intake from diets composed of ultra-processed foods (UPFs). Over a 14-day period, participants consuming a UPF diet with textures that reduced their eating rate, had an average energy intake reduction of 369 kcal per day, compared to when they followed a 14-day UPF diet with textures that promoted a faster eating rate.
Credit: EUFIC - European Food Information Council
Brussels, Belgium — 2 June 2025 — A randomized controlled trial (RCT) carried out by researchers from Wageningen University, the Netherlands, has provided new evidence that texture-derived differences in meal eating rate influence energy intake from diets composed of ultra-processed foods (UPFs). Over a 14-day period, participants consuming a UPF diet with textures that reduced their eating rate, had an average energy intake reduction of 369 kcal per day, compared to when they followed a 14-day UPF diet with textures that promoted a faster eating rate.
Eating rate (measured in grams per minute) had previously been suggested as one of the mechanisms by which ultra-processed foods may promote increased calorie intake. The findings of the current RCT demonstrate the importance of food texture in guiding eating rate and intake, and the central role of sensory cues in regulating meal size.
For the study, 41 participants were randomly assigned to two, 14-day diets comprising over 90% energy coming from UPFs. One diet consisted of meals and snacks with textures thought to encourage a slower eating rate, and one diet consisted of textures thought to promote faster-eating rates. On both diet arms, participants could eat as much or as little as they wanted (ad libitum) and were instructed to eat until they were comfortably full. After the first 14-day diet, participants completed a 14-day washout period after which they switched to the other diet arm for another 14 days. Importantly, the meals on each diet were matched for food energy density (kcal/g), portion size (gram), total energy served (kcal) and energy derived from Nova 4 (UPF) foods, making it possible to focus the comparison on intake differences based on meal texture and eating rate.
The research was carried out at the Human Nutrition Research Unit at Wageningen University using a semi-residential design. All meals were provided and participants consumed most of their meals at the unit, but were free to work and return home in the evenings. This enabled controlled administration of each diet and measurement of intake, while facilitating normal living patterns.
The study, led by Prof. Ciarán Forde, found that the effect of food texture on eating rate, and associated effect on energy intake were consistent across the study participants and sustained for the duration of the 14-day diet intervention period. Meals within both diets were rated to be equally liked and familiar by participants, and despite consuming significantly fewer calories on the slower UPF-diet, participants did not report differences in appetite sensations or diet satisfaction. The results highlight that meal texture can be used to moderate consumers eating behaviours and create new opportunities to better regulate energy intake using a foods sensory cues.
"The consistency of the effect of meal texture on eating rate and intake was striking. The cumulative difference in intake on average between the two diets were over 5,000 kcals across the 14-day period. Almost all participants adjusted their eating behaviours in response to the meal textures served, without any guidance or instructions or the need to consciously restrict their intake or compromise on food enjoyment and satisfaction.
Our findings contribute to a better understanding of previously reported differences in energy intake from UPFs and minimally processed diets, and have implications more generally for our understanding of the drivers of meal size. The consistency of the impact of meal texture across almost all participants, and the sustained effect of meal texture on eating rate and intake over the 14-days of the diet intervention highlight the potential for sensory cues to modify our habitual eating behaviours and intake within meals and over time." said Prof Forde.
The full study has been submitted to peer-review for publication, and findings will be presented at the upcoming American Society for Nutrition conference NUTRITION 2025 on the 2nd of June 2025 in Florida, USA.
ENDS
About RESTRUCTURE
The RESTRUCTURE project is a 5-year research programme co-financed by TKI Agri & Food, a Dutch funding scheme for public-private partnerships. This project contributes to the Dutch government’s mission to guide consumers to make healthy food choices (Mission D, MMIP D2, TKI) and increase the supply of healthier foods by the food industry, by implementing additional design principles based on texture and eating rate. For more information on the project structure and governance: https://restructureproject.org/governance/
For general information: https://restructureproject.org/
CONTACTS
Project Coordinator: Prof Ciarán Forde, Wageningen University and Research: ciaran.forde@wur.nl
Media Contacts:
Nina McGrath: nina.mcgrath@eufic.org & Kenia Fita Capdevila: kenia.fitacapdevila@eufic.org
Method of Research
Randomized controlled/clinical trial
COI Statement
This research is supported by the Dutch Top-Consortium for Knowledge and Innovation Agri & Food (TKI-Agri-food) Project Restructure; (TKI 22.150). The ‘Restructure’ project is a public-private partnership on precompetitive research on the influence of food texture and eating rate on energy intake. For more information go to https://restructureproject.org/governance/