Aqueous zinc metal batteries (AZMBs) are promising candidates for renewable energy storage, yet their practical deployment in subzero environments remains challenging due to electrolyte freezing and dendritic growth. Although organic additives can enhance the antifreeze properties of electrolytes, their weak polarity diminishes ionic conductivity, and their flammability poses safety concerns, undermining the inherent advantages of aqueous systems. Herein, we present a cost-effective and highly stable Na₂SO₄ additive introduced into a Zn(ClO₄)₂-based electrolyte to create an organic-free antifreeze electrolyte. Through Raman spectroscopy, in situ optical microscopy, density functional theory computations, and molecular dynamics simulations, we demonstrate that Na⁺ ions improve low-temperature electrolyte performance and mitigate dendrite formation by regulating uniform Zn²⁺ deposition through preferential adsorption and electrostatic interactions. As a result, the Zn||Zn cells using this electrolyte achieve a remarkable cycling life of 360 h at − 40 °C with 61% depth of discharge, and the Zn||PANI cells retained an ultrahigh capacity retention of 91% even after 8000 charge/discharge cycles at − 40 °C. This work proposes a cost-effective and practical approach for enhancing the long-term operational stability of AZMBs in low-temperature environments.

NH₄V₄O₁₀ (NVO) is considered a promising cathode material for aqueous zinc-ion batteries due to its high theoretical capacity. However, its practical application is limited by irreversible deamination, structural collapse, and sluggish reaction kinetics during cycling. Herein, K⁺ and C₃N₄ co-intercalated NVO (KNVO-C₃N₄) nanosheets with expanded interlayer spacing are synthesized for the first time to achieve high-rate, stable, and wide-temperature cathodes. Molecular dynamics and experimental results confirm that there is an optimal C₃N₄ content to achieve higher reaction kinetics. The synergistic effect of K⁺ and C₃N₄ co-intercalation significantly reduces the electrostatic interaction between Zn²⁺ and the [VO_n] layer, improves the specific capacity and cycling stability. Consequently, the KNVO-C₃N₄ electrode displays outstanding electrochemical performance at room temperature and under extreme environments. It exhibits excellent rate performance (228.4 mAh g⁻¹ at 20 A g⁻¹), long-term cycling stability (174.2 mAh g⁻¹ after 10,000 cycles at 20 A g⁻¹), and power/energy density (210.0 Wh kg⁻¹ at 14,200 W kg⁻¹) at room temperature. Notably, it shows remarkable storage performance at − 20 °C (111.3 mAh g⁻¹ at 20 A g⁻¹) and 60 °C (208.6 mAh g⁻¹ at 20 A g⁻¹). This strategy offers a novel approach to developing high-performance cathodes capable of operating under extreme temperatures.

Abstract

Purpose – The market products produced by Initial Coin Offerings (ICO) platforms are often relatively new and have no previous transaction records and therefore are hard to estimate for its demand. The purpose is to study the impacts of the degree of ambiguity aversion of entrepreneurs to demand uncertainty on the ICO financing ratio, the optimal expected output, the optimal efforts and the token price.

Design/methodology/approach– In an optimal ICO design, we introduce demand uncertainty of the product and establish a robust optimisation method to solve the ICO optimal design. We compare ICO financing and the general venture capital (VC) financing model. We analyse the impact of demand uncertainty on the optimal ICO financing ratio.

Findings – Findings include that the ICF of financing ratio is positively related to the degree of ambiguity aversion, the token price is negatively related to the degree of ambiguity aversion and the “ambiguity premium” exists in the ICO market, the optimal effort levels are negatively related with the ICO financing ratio, but positively related with token price, and in the environment of high production cost, VC financing is not as good as ICO financing.

Originality/value – We develop a robust ICO financing model by assuming that the entrepreneur is ambiguity aversive to the demand uncertainty. Analyse the impact of the degree of ambiguity aversion on the ICO financing ratio in theory and find that the entrepreneur can raise funds with the higher ICO token ratio when she has a larger degree of ambiguity aversion to the demand uncertainty. Extend the impact analysis of the degree of ambiguity aversion on the expected token price and find a negative relationship between the expected token price and the degree of ambiguity aversion of the entrepreneur to the demand uncertainty.