By improving how unmanned ground vehicles see and navigate complex, cluttered construction sites, automation is set to transform tasks like site mapping and monitoring.

Hydrogen, with its carbon-free composition and the availability of abundant renewable energy sources for its production, holds significant promise as a fuel for internal combustion engines (ICEs). Its wide flammability limits and high flame speeds enable ultra-lean combustion, which is a promising strategy for reducing NOx emissions and improving thermal efficiency. However, lean hydrogen-air flames, characterized by low Lewis numbers, experience thermo-diffusive instabilities that can significantly influence flame propagation and emissions. To address this challenge, it is crucial to gain a deep understanding of the fundamental flame dynamics of hydrogen-fueled engines. This study uses high-speed planar SO2-LIF to investigate the evolutions of the early flame kernels in hydrogen and methane flames, and analyze the intricate interplay between flame characteristics, such as flame curvature, the gradients of SO2-LIF intensity, tortuosity of flame boundary, the equivalent flame speed, and the turbulent flow field. Differential diffusion effects are particularly pronounced in H2 flames, resulting in more significant flame wrinkling. In contrast, CH4 flames, while exhibiting smoother flame boundaries, are more sensitive to turbulence, resulting in increased wrinkling, especially under stronger turbulence conditions. The higher correlation between curvature and gradient of H2 flames indicates enhanced reactivity at the flame troughs, leading to faster flame propagation. However, increased turbulence can mitigate these effects. Hydrogen flames consistently exhibit higher equivalent flame speeds due to their higher thermo-diffusivity, and both hydrogen and methane flames accelerate under high turbulence conditions. These findings provide valuable insights into the distinct flame behaviors of hydrogen and methane, highlighting the importance of understanding the interactions between thermo-diffusive effects and turbulence in hydrogen-fueled engine combustion.