As the United States marks its 250th anniversary, a special collection in Science highlights the roots and evolution of the nation’s science and research enterprise.

Across three Policy Forums, authors illustrate how the United States’ scientific and technological progress has been driven not only by major discoveries and innovations, but also by the policies and institutions that supported them. These articles highlight the historical changes in government, universities, and industry that have shaped the U.S. research and science enterprise and emphasize that continued collaboration among these sectors is essential to advancing scientific research and technological development.

For much of U.S. history, the federal government played only a limited role in funding scientific research. However, in a Policy Forum by Daniel Gross and Bhaven Sampat, the authors discuss how that changed dramatically during World War II, when the government forged unprecedented partnerships with universities and industry to accelerate innovation for the war effort. This success ultimately laid the foundation for the modern American research enterprise as well as the establishment of the diverse network of federal science-focused agencies, such as the NIH, NSF, and NASA. The system that arose post-WWII has become globally influential and continues to fuel technological progress, economic growth, and public health.

In another Policy Forum, Johns Hopkins University President Ronald Daniels highlights the role of U.S. universities in U.S. research. According to Daniels, much of the modern American research enterprise can trace its roots to the late 19th century transformation of U.S. universities. The rise in advanced research through graduate-level education, which was sustained by federal investment, quickly made the U.S. a global leader in science. The author argues that the core principles of open competition, scientific merit, and academic freedom remain essential and should be strengthened rather than abandoned.

The final Policy Forum underscores how American industry has helped build American science and innovation. According to Ashish Arora and Sharon Belenzon, the organization of American innovation has evolved from the lone inventor to a collaborative ecosystem linking universities, start-ups, and established companies. Early industrial research laboratories, pioneered by innovators like Thomas Edison and later expanded by major corporations, integrated scientific discovery with product development and helped fuel many of the twentieth century’s greatest technological advances. Over time, however, universities became the primary engines of basic research, while venture-backed start-ups increasingly translated discoveries into commercial applications and larger firms focused on scaling them.

The package also includes a selection of six short essays from various authors that highlight the nation’s scientific legacy – both its extraordinary achievements, such as the space program, and its profound harms, like the eugenics movement. Together, the essays offer perspective on how science has shaped –  and been shaped by – democracy, equity, public investment, and the U.S.’s evolving values.

In an Editorial, Science Editor-in-Chief Holden Thorp reflects on whether the promise of knowledge and education envisioned by the founders is still alive in America today. “Rather than continuing to discuss the problem of public trust in higher education and science, the Semiquincentennial is an opportunity for both institutions to acknowledge that Americans can be disappointed in the impact of higher education and science on society but still believe that both can be better,” Thorp writes. “The scientific community can recognize this by committing to what it says it can do and living up to those aspirations in a way that is rigorously documented and provides benefits to all.”

For his work in revealing the hidden role of the microbiota in mosquito-borne disease, Yibin Zhu is the winner of the 2026 Noster NOSTER & Science Microbiome Prize. The work shows how microbiota from both the hosts and vectors can either promote or suppress virus transmission, depending on where they act in the transmission cycle. “Pathogens have taught us many of the foundational principles of infectious disease. Yet my work has convinced me that some of the most powerful regulators of transmission are neither pathogens nor hosts but the microbial communities that inhabit them,” writes the author. Mosquito-borne diseases, such as malaria and dengue, arise through interactions among viruses, hosts, mosquitoes, and their environments. While microbiota are known to affect host immunity and physiology, research has traditionally focused on viruses or mosquito vectors, overlooking the microbes that connect them. Zhu’s work aims to fill this gap by investigating how microbes influence multiple stages of the disease transmission cycle, including mosquito attraction to infected hosts and viral infection within mosquitoes.

Zhu and his colleagues’ research has found that in infected hosts, viral infection altered the skin immune environment, suppressing the antimicrobial peptide RELMα and allowing acetophenone-producing skin bacteria to expand. Increased acetophenone production made infected hosts more attractive to mosquitoes, potentially enhancing virus transmission. In mosquitoes, a naturally occurring bacterial symbiont, Rosenbergiella_YN46, strongly reduced dengue and Zika virus infection in both disease-carrying Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquito species. After blood feeding, the bacterium secreted an enzyme that acidified the mosquito gut, prematurely triggering irreversible changes in viral envelope proteins and rendering the viruses noninfectious. The symbiote microbe imposed no detectable fitness cost on mosquitoes and was more abundant in regions with lower dengue incidence. “Understanding this invisible hand of the microbiota may help us rethink how vector-borne diseases emerge and how they might finally be controlled,” Zhu writes.

Finalists for the prize were Erik Bakkeren for his essay “Ecology of the gut microbiome: microbial competition can be harnessed to prevent and cure deadly diseases,” and Taichi Suzuki for his essay “The missing thriftiness: host-microbial coevolution and its influence on human health.”

Over the decade from 2014 to 2023, Mexico’s infant death rate barely budged, suggesting the country hit a wall in saving babies’ lives—even as official paperwork claimed that almost all babies had a medical professional present when they died.

That’s among the findings of a new study co-led by Genny Carrillo, MD, a children’s health expert with the Texas A&M University School of Public Health. She worked closely with colleagues from a Mexican hospital, university and national government agency to track what caused these deaths, where they happened and whether the families had access to medical care.